CHEMISTRY NOTES

12^th Class Chemistry Notes

Solid State 

Solid: - Matter which posses rigidity having definite shape & volume is called solid.

Types of solid

1. Crystalline Solid :- Eg:- Metals And Non metals
2. Amorphous Solid :- Eg:- Rubber ,Glass ,Plastic

Difference and Comparison between characteristics of solid -
Crystalline Solid: - Contain regular arrangement having short range & as well as long range order.
Definite geometric shape, Sharpe melting point, they have definite heat fusion, they undergo clean cleavage, and they are true solid.
Amorphous Solid: - Containing irregular arrangement having short range order only, irregular shape, melting over range of temp, they do not have definite heat of fusion they undergo an irregular cut they are pseudo solid or super cooled solid.
Classification of crystalline solid:-
    1. Ionic Solid 
    2. Molecular Solid
    3. Covalent of network Solid
    4. Metallic Solid
(i) Ionic solid: - in these crystalline solids, constituent particle are positive or negative ion held together by columbic or electrostatic forces of attraction. Eg:-NaCl, MgO
(ii) Molecular solids:- These are of three types

1. Non polar molecular solid: - in these the constituent particles are atoms of noble gas or non polar molecules are held by London dispersion forces.
Eg: - Ar, H2.

2. Polar molecular solids: - In these solids constituent particles are held together by dipole-dipole attraction forces.
 Eg: - Hcl, SO2.

3. Hydrogen bonded molecular solids: - in these types of molecular solids constituent particles are molecule containing hydrogen linked to F, O and N held by hydrogen bonding.
Eg: - H2O (ice), NH3.

(iii) Covalent or Network Solids: - Constituent particles are atoms held together by covalent bonds. Eg: - C (diamond), SiO2 (quartz).
(iv) Metallic solids: - Constituent particles are positive ions in a sea of mobile electrons held together by metallic bonds. Eg: - All metals and alloys.
Crystal Lattice: - Regular arrangement of constituent particles in 3-D is called crystal lattice or space lattice.
Unit cell: - The smallest three dimensional portion of a complete space lattice which when repeated over and again in different direction produces the complete space lattice is called unit cell.
Bravais lattice: - The fourteen lattices corresponding to seven crystal system are known as Bravais Lattice.
Coordination number: - the number of spheres touching to a particular sphere.
No. of atoms per unit cell:-
(a) No. of atoms in simple cubic lattice:- 8 atoms are at corner
       8*1/8=1                                                                          


(b) No. of atoms in BCC:- 8 atoms are at corner and one in the body
         8*1/8+1+2    
                                             
(c) No. of atoms in FCC:- 8 atoms are at corner and six atoms are at faces (one on each face)
        8*1/8+6*1/2=4

                                                       
Close packing in crystals:-

1. Close packing in one dimension: - sphere are touching each other in a row. In this arrangement coordination no. is 2

                                              

2.  Close packing in two dimension:- it is done by two ways-
1. Square close packing: - in this arrangement spheres of second row are exactly above the first row.
               

2. Hexagonal close packing: - in this arrangement the spheres of second row may be placed in the depression of the first row.
    
3.  Close packing in three dimension
1. Three dimensional close packing from two dimensional closed packed layer: - starting from the square close packed layer the second layer and all further layers will be built up such that they are horizontally as well as vertically aligned with each other.


2. Three dimensional packing from two dimensional hexagonal close packing:- when spheres are arranged in hexagonal close packing in 2-Dthe two types of voids ‘a’& ‘b’ are formed.
‘a’ & ‘b’ voids are triangular when second layer is placed over the void of first layer (only one void is full filled) in hexagonal close packing and these layer form two voids
C – Triangular and D – Octahedral.
Packing efficiency: - The percentage of the total space filled by the particles is called packing efficiency.
Packing fraction: - The fraction of the total space filled is called packing fraction.

SOLUTION

Solution: - A solution is homogeneous mixture of two or more chemically non-reacting substances, whose composition can be varied within certain limits.

Expressing concentration of solutions

1. Percentage:-
• mass percentage (%) of a component  (W/W)
                  = Mass of the component in solution*100 / Total mass of the solution

• volume percentage (%) of the component (V/V)
           = Volume of the component * 100 / Total volume of the solution

• Mass/Volume percentage (%) of the component (W/V)
           =Mass of the component in solution * 100 / Total volume of the solution
2. Strength:-
Strength of the solution ( gl^-1 or gdm^-3) = Mass of the solute in grams / Volume of the solution in litre
3. Molarity (M) :- No. of moles of the solute  / Volume of the solution in litre
    M = strength in gram per litre / Molar mass of the solute
4. Mole fraction :-  It is obtained by dividing the no. of moles of the solute or solvent by the total no. of moles of the solution.
Mole fraction,    X₁ = n₁/n₁+n₂
                      X₂ = n₂/n₁+n₂
 n₁ = no. of moles of the solvent
 n₂ = no. of moles of the solute
X₁+X₂ = 1
5. Mass fraction: - Mass of the given component per unit mass of the solution denoted by X.
Mass fraction,   X_A = W_A / W_A+W_B
                      X_B = W_B / W_A+W_B
W_A = Mass of the solvent
W_B = Mass of the solute
X_A+X_B = 1

Solution of solids in liquids

• Solubility of a solid in a liquid :- It is defined as the maximum amount of the solid (solute) in grams which can dissolve in 100 grams of liquid (solvent) to form the saturated solution at the particular temperature.

Factors affecting the solubility of a solid in a liquid

1. Nature of the solute & the solvent :- “Like dissolves Like”
• The polar (ionic) compounds like NaCl dissolve in polar solvent like water.
• The non polar (covalent or organic) compounds dissolve in non polar compounds like Anthracene dissolve in Benzene.
2. Effect of temperature :-
• The solubility increases with increase of temperature when the process of dissolution is endothermic.
Solute + Solvent + Heat ----> Solution
Ex:- NaNo3, KNO3, NaCl, KCl
• The solubility Decreases with increase in temperature when the process of dissolution is exothermic.
Solute + Solvent -> Solution + Heat
              Ex:- Sodium carbonate mono hydrate (Na2CO3.H2O).
• Those whose solubility does not increases or decreases continuously
Ex:- CaCl2.6H2O -> CaCl2.4H2O -> CaCl2.2H2O

Solution of Gases in liquids

• Solubility of a gas in a liquid :- The solubility of a gas in a particular liquid is the volume of the gas in CC’s (centimetre cubes cm³) that can dissolve in unit volume of the liquid to form the saturated solution at the temperature of the experimented under a pressure of one atmosphere.

Factors affecting the solubility of a liquid in a gas

1. Nature of the gas & the solvent:- Gases like Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen etc. dissolve in water only to a small extent but gases like CO₂, HCl, NH₃ are highly soluble. The greater solubility of later gases they react with solvent. the greater solubility of the gas in a solvent due to their chemical similarity.
2. Nature of temperature:- The solubility of gases decreases with increase  in temperature.
3. Effect of pressure (Henry’s Law):- By increasing the pressure solubility also increases.

Henry’s Law:- The mass of a gas dissolved in the given volume of liquid at constant temperature is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas present in equilibrium with the liquid.
                                        m ∝ p
                                        m=K_HP
Also,
The partial pressure of gas in vapour phase (P) is proportional to the mole fraction of gas (x) in the solution.
                                    P=K_HX

Limitations of Henry’s law

Henry’s law is applicable only if the the following conditions are satisfied:-

• Pressure should be low and temperature should be high i.e. gas behaves as an ideal gas.
• The gas should not go under compound formation with solvent or association or dissociation in the solvent.
  

  Electrochemistry

  Electrolysis: It is the process of decomposition of an electrolyte by the passage of electricity through its aqueous solution or molten state.

  Faraday’s first law of electrolysis

  In a chemical reaction, the amount of any substance deposited or librated is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity passed through it.
                                      W ∝ Q
                                      W = ZQ                                   
                                      W = Zit                                            ( Q= I*t )
  Where, Z = Electrochemical Equivalent.
  Z = atomic weight/nF                   (n = no. of electron, F = 96500 )

  Faraday’s second law of electrolysis

  When the same quantity of electricity is passed through the different electrolytes connected in series. The weights of the substance produced at the electrodes are directly proportional to their equivalent weights.
              Ex: AgNO₂  and CuSO₄ solution connected in series,
  
  Conductance of electrolytic solution:- Electrolytes conducts electricity by decomposition.
  Electrical resistance:- If voltage v is applied to the ends of the conductor and current “I” floe through it, then the resistance “R” of the conductor is V/I (ohm).
  Electrical conductance:- The reciprocal of electrical resistance is called conductance. And is represented by G sign
  Thus,    G = 1/R                              [unit of G = mho]
  Specific resistance or Resistivity:- it is observed that,
                                      R ∝ l                                   
  There r is constant and called as resistivity.
  Specific conductance or conductivity:- The reciprocal of resistivity is known as conductivity. And is denoted by k (kappa).
                          R=1/G              or,        r = 1/k     ……………………(i)
      ……………………………..(ii)
  From eq. (i) and (ii)
  
  

  Equivalent conductivity

  Equivalent conductivity:- equivalent conductivity of a solution at a dilution v is defined as the conductance of all the ions produced from one gram equivalent of the electrolyte dissolved in v cm3 of the solution when the distance between the electrode is one cm and the area of the electrode is so large then whole the solution is come between them. It is represented by
  Equivalent conductivity = Specific conductivity ´ v
                                                 
                                                            
  Where, Ceq is concentration of solution in gm. eq/L.
  
  But, for particular cell ‘l/a’ is constant called cell constant and is represented by G*
  
  
                                       
  Where, c is molar concentration.
  

  Chemical Kinetics

  The branch of chemistry, which deals with the study of reaction rates and their mechanism, called as chemical kinetics.
  Rate of a chemical reaction:- “ The rate of a reaction can be defined as the change in concentration of a reactant or product in unit time”
  Let a reaction whose volume remain constant                    R -------> P
  One mole of reactant R produces one mole of product P. [R1] & [P1] and [R2] & [P2] are the concentrations of R & P at time t1 & t2 respectively.
  Then,                    Δt =t2-t1
                              Δ[R] = [R2]- [R1]
                              Δ[P] = [P2] – [P1]
  Where,                 square brackets show molar concentration.
   ……………………….(i)
   ……………………….(ii)
  Both above expression show average rate of reaction.
  Units of rate of reaction:-
• Concentration     time^-1
• Mol                   L^-1s^-1

Instantaneous rate of reaction:- It is the rate of change of concentration (i.e. change of concentration per unit time) of any one of the reactants or products at that particular instant of time.
                               
Factors influencing Rate of a reaction:-

• Concentration:- As concentration of reactant increase, rate of reaction also increases.
• Temperature:- Rate of reaction increases with increase of temperature mostly reaction rate double with rise of 100 temperature.
• Catalyst :- Catalyst generally increase the rate of reaction without undergoing in the reaction, it also help in attaining the equilibrium quickly without disturbing the equilibrium state in reversible reaction.

Rate expression and rate constant:-

Consider a general reaction aA + bB --------> cC + dD
Where,         a, b, c, and d are stoichiometric coefficient of reactants and products.
The rate expression for this reaction is-
                                                                             Rate ∝ [A]^x [B]^y  ………………………..(iii)
Where,         component x & y may or may not be equal to the stoichiometric coefficient (a & b) of the reactants
Also,              Rate = k [A]^x [B]^y   ………………………………(iv)
                        ………………………………(v)
This form of equation (v) is known as differential rate equation, where k is proportionality constant called rate constant. And the equation (iii) which relates the rate of a reaction to concentration of reactants is called Rate law or rate expression.

Rate:- Rate law is the expression in which reaction rate is given in terms of molar concentration of reactants with each terms raised to some power, which may or may not be same as the stoichiometric coefficient of the reacting species in a balance chemical reaction.
EX:-  Reaction ® Experimental rate expression

• CHCl₃ + Cl₂ --------> CCl₄ + HCl

        Rate = k[CHCl₃] [Cl₂]^1/2

• CH₃COOC₂H₅ + H₂O -----------> CH₃COOH + C₂H₅OH

        Rate = k[CH₃COOC₂H₅]¹ [H₂O]⁰

• 2NO + O₂ ---------> 2NO₂

Order of a reaction:- The sum of powers of the concentration of the reactants in the rate of low expression is called as the order of that chemical reaction.
Rate = k [A]^x [B]^y
Order = x+y
Order of reaction may be 0, 1, 2, 3 or even in fraction, Zero order reaction is independent of concentration.

Unit of rate constant (k):-
                aA + bB -------> cC + dD
  Rate = k [A]^x [B]^y
Where,                                 x+y = n = order of reaction
               
       
For zero order reaction,
                                Order = n = 0

                                 
For first order, n = 1
                               
                                               
For second order, n = 2
                               
   = Mol^-1 L s^-1

• Surface Chemistry 

  Adsorption: - The accumulation of molecular species at the surface rather than bulk of solid or liquid is called Adsorption.
  Adsorbate: - The molecular species or substance which accumulate at the surface.
  Adsorbent: - The surface of material on which Adsorption takes place.
  Desorption: - The process of removing of adsorbed substance from the surface on which it is adsorbed.
  Absorption: - When the molecular species or substance enters in the bulk phase in solid or liquid is called as Absorption.
  Sorption: - When both adsorption and absorption takes place simultaneously is called as sorption process.

  Mechanism of Adsorption

  Inside the Adsorbent (in bulk) the force acting between the particles are mutually balanced but on the surface, the particles are not surrounded by atoms or molecules of their kind on all sides and hence they posses attraction force so particle stick on the surface of the Adsorbent.
  The extent of adsorption increases with increase in surface area per unit mass of the adsorbent at a given temperature and pressure.
  Heat of adsorption: - With increase in heat Adsorption process decreases.
  Adsorption equilibrium: - As the molecules of the adsorb ate are held on the surface of the solid adsorbent.
  Entropy decreases, i.e. DS is negative
  
  For the process of adsorption to occur, DG must be negative which is possible only when, DS keeps on decreasing and TDS keeps on increasing till ultimately DH becomes equal.
  To TDS so that DG = 0, this state is called adsorption equilibrium.

  Types of adsorption

  There are two types of adsorption
• Physical Adsorption or physisorption: - If accumulation of gas on the surface of solid occurs on account of weak vanderwalls forces is called physical Adsorption.
• Chemical Adsorption or chemosorption: - When gas molecules or atoms are held to the surface (solid) by chemical bonds, the Adsorption is called Chemical Adsorption.

 Characteristics of physical Adsorption or physisorption

• Lack of specificity: - A given surface of an Adsorbent does not show any preference for a particular gas as the vanderwalls forces are universal.
• Nature of Adsorbate: - The amount of gas Adsorbed by a solid depends on the nature of the gas.
• Reversible nature: - Physisorption is reversible because adsorbate may be removed by decreasing pressure.
• Surface area of Adsorbent: - Physisorption increases with increase in surface area.
• Enthalpy of Adsorption: - Physical Adsorption is exothermic process but its enthalpy of adsorption is low (20-40 KJ mol-1).

Characteristics of Chemical Adsorption or chemosorption

• High specificity: - It is high specific because it occurs if there is some possibility of chemical bonding.
• Irreversibility: - As chemisorptions involve compound formation, so it is usually irreversible process.
• Temperature: - Chemisorptions increases with increase in temperature after saturation starts decreasing.
• Pressure: - it is also increases with increase in pressure.
• Surface area: - chemisorptions increases with increase in surface area.
• Enthalpy of Adsorption: - Enthalpy of chemisorptions is high (80-240 KJ mol-1) as it involves chemical bond formation.

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BIOLOGY NOTES

2nd year Biology notes

Homeostatis

 

Homeostatis

Definition

Home means same and statis means state. So the regulatory mechanism which maintained the internal environment of a organism is called homeostatis.


Important Aspects of Homeostatis

There are three important aspects of homeostatis.

• Osmoregulation

• Thermoregulation

• Excretion

Feed Back System

The check and balance system in a body is called feed back system. In a feed back system three organs are involved.

1. Receptor
The organ which receive any change in the internal environment of the body are called Receptor.
2. Effector
The central nervous system which send the message to a particular organ are called effector. Take part in particular action.
3. Central Nervous System
The receptor transfer message to a central nervous system such as brain.


Types of Feed Back System

There are two type of feed back system.

• Positive Feed Back System

• Negative Feed Back System

1. Positive Feed Back System
When there is a change in the internal environment and it is further increase by the process are called positive feed back system.
2. Negative Feed Back System
When there is a change in the internal environment and it is further decreased by the process called negative feed back system.


Osmoregulation

Definition

The regulatory mechanism which maintain the balance between water and solute context of a cell is called osmoregulation.


Osmoregulation in Plant

Due to the availability of water there are four groups of plant.

• Hydrophyte

• Halophyte

• Xerophyte

• Mesophyte

Hydrophyte
The group of plant which is grow in fresh water are called hydrophyte.
Characteristic of Hydrophyte

• The plant do not have layer of cuticle.

• The leave have stomata in the upper surface with take part in transpiration.

• The root are either absent or poorly developed.

Example
Hydrilla, Lotus, Lily plant

Halophytes
The group of plant which is grow in marshy soil or salty soil are called halophyte.
Characteristic of Halophyte

• These plant absorb water from such a soil, which is higher salt concentration and low water potential.

• Halophyte actively absorption salt into their roots.

• In the leaves of plants salt glands are present which helps in the removal of salt and water from the body.

• Some halophytes absorb humidity by leave.

Example
Glass wort, Cord grass

Mesophyte
The group of plant which is grow in well watered soil are called mesophyte.
Characteristics of Mesophyte

• Their roots are well developed.

• Their body is covered by a layer called cuticle.

• They contain stomata for evaporation of extra water.

• Some mesophyte excrete out water in the form of drop this process is called guttation.

Xerophyte
The group of plant which is grow in dry places such as desert are called Xerophyte.
Characteristic of Xerophyte

• Some plants do not face dry consition and produce seed are called ephemeral plant. During raining season seeds germinate.

• Their root are well develop which go deep into the soil to absorb water.

• Some plant have horizontal root on the surface to absorb rain water rapidly.

• Some plant leaves are modified into spine to prevent transpiration.

• Stem and leave covered by cuticle.

• Some plant store water in cell (succulent)

Example
Cacuts, Euphorbia.


Excretion

Definition

The removal of harmful substance produce in the metabolic process from the body is called Excretion.


Excretion in Plant

In plant rate of catabolic process is very slow and waste product are produce in less amount. They are used again in their anabolic process.


Waste Substance of Plant

The substance which are produce in excess amount are

• Water

• CO2 and O2

• Ions

Removal of Water

Extra water is removed from the body of plant by two methods.

Transpiration
The extra amount of water removed in the form of vapor through stomata is called transpiration.
Guttation
When water is removed from plant in the form of drop this process is called Guttation. Guttation occur special opening called hydathods. Guttation take place in those plant which grow in tropical rain forest.


Release of Oxygen and Carbondioxide

• In day time plant used CO2 for photosynthesis process and released O2.

• In night time plant released CO2 and inhale O2 gas.

Ions

Excess amount of ion are deposit into dead cell of plant body such as bark.


Thermoregulation

The maintained the temperature of the body with in a range is called thermoregulation.


Thermoregulation in Plant

The normal range of temperature in plant is 10oC to 35oC. The adaption of plant to low and high temperature are as follows.


Low Temperature

• At low temperature the nature of plasma membrane is changed and produce crystalline structure due to which transport of solute is slow.

• To control this condition plant cell produce unsaturated.

• At freezing point ice crystal are formed in the cell. But the plant of cold region change the composition of solute of cell so ice crystal are not formed in cytoplasm they form in cell wall. This condition is known as freezing tolerance.

High Temperature

High temperature has more harmful than low temperature for plant.

• Due to high temperature all enzyme are denature and metabolic process stop. So plant increase rate of transpiration and cool the body.

• At above 40oC plant produce heat shock protein. They protect the enzyme from destroying.

• In some plant shiny cuticle is present which protest them from high temperature.

• In some plant leaves are reduce in size.

Osmoregulation In Animal

Osmoregulation in Terrestial Animal
In land animals excretion of water take place through body surface so they have develop number of strategies to maintain Osmoregulation.
Water Proof External Covering Epidemics present in reptile, mammal cuticle present in insect which prevent the water loss from their body.
Storage and Excretion of Solid Wastes In birds, reptile and insect store nitrogenous waste uric acid. Uric acid insoluble in water and help to reabsorption of water in cloeca. Uric acid excreted the body in the form of paste and crystal.
Use of Metabolic Water
Some mammal fat is converted into simple compound and during this process water is produce which is reused in the body. Camel, Kangroo used metabolic water.
Storage of Harmful Waste In mammal urea in kidney which is helps in reabsorption of water.

Osmoregulation in Aquatic Animal
Osmoregulation in fresh water animal is maintained by two methods.
1. By Contractile Vacuole
2. By producing dilute urine

1. By Contractile Vacuole
Fresh water unicellular organism have contractile vacuoles. Water with dissolved CO2 and uric acid is collected from the endoplasm into the contractile vacuole, which increase in size up to a maximum and burst released the extra substance in environment. In Amoeba and Paramicium the amount of water and other substance remain in balanced by contractile vacuole.
2. By Producing Dilute Urine
Fresh water fishes have hypertonic body fluid as compare to surrounding water. Fisher released extra amount of water in the form of dilute urine and absorb some essential ion from outside to maintain the salt and water content in the body.

Osmoregulation in Marine Animal
Marine water fishes have hypotonic body fluid than surrounding because sea water have high concentration of salt so these fishes drink water continuously and the salt excreted out along with concentrated urine. They also excrete salt through gills.


Excretion in Animal

In animal removal of nitrogenous waste from the body is very essential. Animal have particular organ to excrete out nitrogenous waste.
Waste Substance of Animal
Animal produce different type of waste substance such as
1. Ammonia
2. Urea
3. Uric Acid
4. Creatinine
5. Hypozenthine

1. Ammonia

• It is a small molecule of gas. Its formula is NH3.

• It is highly soluble in water.

• It is very toxic compound

• It is dissolved in water and removes by simple diffusion method through skin or by urine.

• It is excretory substance of aquatic animal e.g. fishes.

2. Urea

• Urea is less soluble in water.

• Its formula is CO(NH2).

• Urea is very less toxic substance because its 1,00,000 time less toxic then NH3.

• Urea is produce as a result of metabolism in the liver from ammonia.

NH3 + CO2 ------> Citruline ------> Aginine ------> Urea

• This process required energy.

• Urea is the excretory product of mostly land animal like mammals.

3. Uric Acid

• Its formula is C5O3N4H4.

• It is not soluble in water.

• Uric Acid is less toxic than urea.

• Uric Acid released from the body in paste like substance or urete crystal.

• Urid Acid is the excretory product of insect, birds and reptile.

Excretion in Hydra

(Exetory Substance (NH3))
Hydra is a water living animal. In this body the excretory products are produced in the form of NH3. It is excreted out the gastrovascular cavity and then removed from the body along with water.


Excretion in Planaria

(Exetory Organs)
In planaria nitrogenous waste excrete out through skin and special excretory organ called flame call or protonephridia.


Structure of Excretory System and Functions

In the body of planaria there is a system of branch tube like bodies. There are two longitudinal excretory trunks one on either side of the body.

Nephredipores
They open to the out side by small pore called nephredipores.
Flame Cell
Internally these excretory trunk divide and redivide into number of small branches at the end of the branch special cell are present are called flame cell. The flame cells are club-shaped hollow cells. In their internal cavity many cilia are attached which perform movement just like flame of candle.


Functions

All the waste product of main branches absorb by flame cell because the movement of cilia of flame cell. When the excretory product come into the longitudinal excretory system they are removed out of the body through the nephrediopore.

Excretory Organs
The excretory system of earthworm consist of small, coiled tubes called Metanephredia. It is present in each segment.

Structure of Nephredium
Each Nephredium consist of three part.

1. Nephrostome
It is a rounded, ciliated funnel with the opening.
2. Bladder
Main body of nephridum consist of coiled tubular part and wide part called bladder.
3. Nephridiopore
The bladder opens outside by a small pore on the skin are called nephridiopore.

Excretion
As fluid moves along the tubule, epithelium reabsorbs the salt from lumen and send to blood vessels surrounding the nephridium. The left over appears as urine containing nitrogenous waste.


Excretion in Cockroach

Excretory Organs
Cockroach have special tube like excretory structure are called "Malphighian Tubules". It is present between the mid gut and hind gut. It is embedded in the blood.

Excretion
Malphighian tubules absorb all nitrogenous waste from blood and pour them into illium. The latter part of tubules reabsorbs important substance. The uric acid when come into rectum, it also reabsorbs water and salt, so uric became almost dry then it is excreted out of the body.


Liver

Liver is the large raddish brown glandular organ which is central station of metabolism and consequently the body is central metabolism clearing house.


Location

Liver located in the abdomen just below the diaphragm.


Functions of Liver

Liver is the main homeostatis organ which perform several function.

1. Metabolism of CHO and LIPIDS

• Liver is the center of metabolism. Is take part in metabolism of carbohydrate and lipid. It regulates the amount of glucose into the blood. Excess glucose is converted into glycogen, which is reserve food. It amount of glucose is decrease in the blood glycogen is broken into glucose. Glycogen is reduce than liver convert amino acid into glucose.

• Liver also help in oxidation of lipid. It is converted blood lipid into simple fat which is stored in the body.

2. Deamination and Urea Formation
Excess of protein can not be store in body. Protein are change into amino acid. Amine group is removed from the amino acid this process is called deamination of form NH3. Amonia combine with CO2 and convert into urea by a cycle called ornithine cycle.

3. Production of Bile
Liver produce a secretion called Bile. It is yellowish green alkaline substance. Bile contain bile pigment biliverdin, bilirubin, salt such as sodium-glycocholate, Na-taurocholate, Cholesterol, Phospholipid and mucous.
Functions of Bile

• Bile neutralizes the acidic food

• It kills the germs

• It takes part in the emulsification of fat.

4. Detoxification
Liver convert toxic substance into non toxic substance this process are called detoxification.
For example a compound hydrogen peroxide H2O2 is a harmful compound. The liver secrete on enzyme catalase which convert H2O2 into H2 and O2 and became non poisonous substance.

5. Formation of Cholesterol
Liver also forms cholesterol which is necessary for the body. Its extra amount is always excreted along with water.

5. Formation of Cholesterol
Liver also forms cholesterol which is necessary for the body. Its extra amount is always excreted along with water.

6. Thermoregulation
Liver helps in regulation of body temperature by continue supply of blood and metabolic process.

7. Storage of Vitamins
Liver stores vitamins such as A1B and D.

Urinary System in Human Being

Urinary system of man consist of

Kidney
Kidneys are pair of dark red bean shaped structures which are attached to the dorsal wall of the abdominal cavity.

• Kidney are covered by a membrane are called peritoneum.

Ureter
Urine leaves the kidney through a pair of duct called Ureter.

Bladder
The ureters of both kidney drain into pear shaped thin walled structure are called bladder.

Urethra
Urine leaves the body during urination from the bladder through a tube called Urethra.

Sphincter
Sphincter muscles near the junction of the urethra and bladder control the urine in bladder.


Kidney

Kidney are a pair of dark red bean shaped structures which are attached to the dorsal wall of the abdominal cavity.


Structure of Kidney

Internally kidney consist of two part
1. Cortex is the outer and darker region.
2. Medulla is the inner and lighter region in the kidney. It contain many cone like structure are called pyramids.


Nephron

The basic structural and functional unit of kidney are called Nephron.
OR
Kidney consist of million of microtubules are called Nephron.


Structure of Nephron

Each nephron is sub-divided into
1. Renal Corpuscle
2. Renal Tubule

1. Renal Corpuscle
Each renal corpuscle is divides into two
i. Bowman's Capsule
ii. Glomerulus

i. Bowman's Capsule
In each nephron inner end forms a cup-shaped swelling called Bowman's capsule.
ii. Glomerulus
Each bowman's capsule have a ball of capillaries called glomerulus. Glumerulus circulates blood through capsule as it arrives through Aferent Arteriole. Blood carried away from the capsule by a small vessel called Efferent Arteriole. The blood vessel sub divide again into another network of capillaries called Peritubular Capillaries.

2. Renal Tubule
Bowman capsule continuous as extensively tubular system.
i. Proximal Convoluted tubule
ii. Loop of Henle
iii. Distal convoluted tubule
iv. Common collecting duct

i. Proximal Convoluted Tubule
Bowman capsule gives out a coiled tubule called Proximal Convoluted Tubule.
ii. Loop of Henle
The proximal convoluted opens into a U-Shaped structure called loop of Henle. Loop of Henle consist of descending and ascending limbs.
iii. Distal Convoluted Tubule
The ascending limb of loop of Henle opens into another convoluted tubule called Distal Convoluted Tubule.
iv. Collecting Tubules
Distal tubule empties into collecting tubules which open into pelvis.


Functions of Kidney

Urine formation take place in these following steps:
1. Ultra Filtration
2. Selective Reabsorption
3. Tubular Secretion
4. Counter Current Exchange

2. Selective Reabsorption
All the important constituent of the glomerular filtrate are reabsorbed when filtrate pass in tubular system.

• Prominal convoluted tubule reabsorb salt amino acid, glucose and water.

• Descending limb of loop of Henle reabsorb Na and Cl inter in the interstial fluid. Na and Cl reabsorbed by active transport. Water is not reabsorb.

• Distal convoluted tubule have hypotonic solution due to high concentration of water. In this part by the action of hormones concentration of various salt is adjust.

3. Tubular Secretion
Tubular section is also very important process of excretion. The tubular epithelium also secrete substances into teh lumen this secretion is very selective and mainly of hydrogen into balance pH value of the filtrate passing through the tubule.

4. Counter Current Exchange
The exchange of solute and water in the medulla of kidney is called counter current exchange. There are two counter exchanges:
i. Counter Current Multiplier
ii. Counter Current of Vasa Recta

i. Counter Current Multiplier
When the filtrate passes through the descending limb of loop of Henle water is reabsorbe due to this process the filtrate became hypertonic.
ii. Counter Current of Vasa Recta
The blood vessels which run parallel to the loop of Henle are called Vasa recta. Through these blood vessels only about 10% of blood of kidney passes very slowly. This blood supplies oxygen and nourishment to the cell of medulla and carries away the reabsorb water from the filtrate. The system is regulate and maintained properly.


Reabsorption in the Nephron

Types of Nephron

There are two type of nephron
1. Cortical Nephron
2. Juxtamedullary Nephron

1. Cortical Nephron
The nephron which have small length of loop of Henle and only present in cortex region of kidney are called Cortical Nephron.
2. Juxtamedullary Nephron
These nephron have long loop medullar of kidney reabsorb more water are called juxtamedullary nephron.


Effect of Hormones on the Working of kidney

Certain hormones control the working of kidney.
1. Andiurelic Hormones (ADH)
2. Aldosteron Hormones (AH)
3. Parathormon Hormone (PTH)

1. Antidiurelic Hormones
Pituitary gland secrete ADH. It is also called vasopressin.
Functions
Hormones helps in reabsorption of water. Hormone is produce at the time of dehydration. It causes shortage of water in the body due to rapid loss of water. The osmotic pressure of blob increases. This hormone helps to balance the amount of water.

2. Aldosteron Hormones
Outer part of adrenal cortex secreted aldosteron harmine.
Functions
It control the concentration of Na+ in the bosy fluid. It increase the reabsorption of sodium ion in nephrone.

3. Parathormon Hormones
Parathyroid gland secrete parathormone.


Kidney Problem

Kidney is not perform properly due to different reason are called Kidney problem or Kidney disease.
There are many problems of kidney
1. Kidney Stone
2. Renal Failure

1. Kidney Stone
Stone solid materials are found in the kidney called Kidney Stone.
Causes
Kidney stones are caused by metabolic disease.
70% of kidney stone are formed due to calcium oxalate and phosphate oxalate. Oxalate are produced in the metabolic process and added in the urine and deposit in kidney change into stones. Oxalates are present in green vegetables and tomatoes therefore may be the source of oxalate stone.
Infective Stone
20% stone are called as infective stone. Infective stone consist of combination of calcium, magnesium and ammonium phosphate.
Uric Acid Stone
5% stone are formed in uric acid.

Cure
Lithotripsy
The lithotripsy is used for non surgical removal of kidney stone. It is a technique used to break up stones that form in the kidney, ureter or gall bladder.
Method
There are several way to do it although the most common is shock wave lithotripsy or ultrasonic lithotripsy. High concentration X-Ray or ultrasound are directed from a machine outside the body to the stone inside. The shock waves break the stone in tiny pieces or into sand which are passed out of the body in urine.

Renal Failure
Sometimes the working of kidney is badly damaged due to certain reason or infection. They are not able to filter the harmful nitrogenous substance it is called renal failure. In such condition the harmful substance remain in blood.
Symptoms

• Nausea

• Vomiting

• Loss of appetite

• Weakness

• Difficulty in breathing

In severe condition patient may suffer by pneumonia high blood pressure coma and ultimately death.


Treatment of Kidney Failure

Dialysis
A technique to remove nitrogenous wastes particularly the urea from the blood of the patient is called Dialysis.
Type of Dialysis
There are two types of dialysis
1. Haemodialysis
2. Peritoneal Dialysis

1. Haemodialysis
Haemodialysis means "Cleaning the blood". In this procedure blood is circulated through a machine which contains a dialyzer also called on artificial kidney.
Dialyzer has two spaces separated by thin membrance and dialysis fluid on the other. The waste and excess water pass from the blood through the membrane into the dialysis fluid. Dialysis take place 6 to 10 hours and 3 time in a week.

2. Peritoneal Dialysis
Abdomen has a peritoneal, lined by a thin epithelium called peritoneum. Peritoneal cavity is filled with dialysis fluid that enters the body through a catheter. Excess water and wastes pass through the peritoneum into the dialysis fluid. This process is repeated several times in a day.

Kidney Transplant
Dialysis may be used as temporary measure. In high degree renal failure also called as Uremia or end stage renal disease, the dialysis is done endlessly thus the surgical transplantation of matching donor kidney is only the option left as the permanent treatment.


Thermoregulation in Animal

Temperature Classification of Animal

According to the body temperature animals are divides into two group.
1. Poikilotherms (Cold Blooded)
2. Homeotherms (Warm Blooded)

1. Poikilotherms
Animal cannot maintain their body temperature and it can be changed accordingto the climate are called Poikilotherms.
Example
Amphibians, Reptile, Fishes.

2. Homeotherms
Animal can maintain their body temperature. It does not changed according to their environment are called Homeotherm.
Example
Birds, Mammals
Many poikilotherm can maintain their body temperature and homeotherm do not maintain their body temperature always. So there terms are changed.


Modern Classification of Animal

The modern classification of animal according to the body temperature.
1. Ectothermic
2. Endothermic
3. Heterothermic

1. Ectothermic
Ecto mean outside thermic mean heat so those animal obtained heat energy from their environment are called Ecotothermic.
Example
Invertibrate, Fish, Amphibian and Reptile.

2. Endothermic
Endo mean inside thermic mean heat so those animals use internal energy which is produced during their metabolism.
Example
Mammalia, Birds and Some Fishes.

3. Heterothermic
Those animals are able to maintain their body temperature with certain variation, so their body temperature can be changed upto certain limits are called Heterothermic.
Example
Bat, Humming birds.


Method of Thermoregulation in Animals

In animal thermoregulation occurs by two ways.
1. Behavioral Regulation
2. Physiological Regulation

1. Behavioral Regulation
When temperature is maintained by the activity of animal body, it is called behavior regulation, such as animals change their position to increase or decrease the temperature.
2. Physiological Regulation
When temperature of the body is maintained by inter-physiological process it is called physiological regulation, such as change in blood circulation etc.


Thermoregulation in Cold Temperature

In cold temperature animal regulate their body temperature by two methods.
1. Physiological Process
2. Behavioral Process

1. Physiological Regulation
This is the internal process of the body to maintain body temperature. It take place by two way
i. Non-shivering thermogenesis
ii. Shivering thermogenesis

i. Non-Shivering Thermogenesis
Hormones trigger the heat production as do thyroid hormones are called Non-shivering thermogenesis.
Mechanism
In this mechanism heat is produce by three methods.

• Erection of hairs

• Reduction of blood flow toward skin

• Sub cutaneous fat accumulation

Erection of Hairs
In cold season the hair become in erect position. In furry animals air is trapped between the space of hairs and loss of body heat is stopped.
Reduction in Blood Flow toward Skin
In cold season the blood vessels of skin are reduced. It is called Vasoconstriction. Due to this process blood flow towards skin become slow and loss of heat through skin is reduced.
Sub Cutaneous Fat Accumulation
In mammals below skin fat is deposited in adipose cell. It prevent the loss of body heat. It is common in aquatic animals such as Seal, Whale.

ii. Shivering Thermogenesis
The rate of heat production is increased y increased muscle contraction by movement or shivering so called as shivering thermogenesis.
Mechanism
In very cold weather shivering occur in the muscles of the body. It produce heat Rate of Metabolism become faster. In this mechanism hormones are involved one hormone adrenaline is produce by adrenal gland. It increases the supply of glucose in blood so respiration become fast and energy is produce.
Thyroid gland also secreted thyroxin hormone in blood. This hormone also increased respiration to produce heat.

2. Behavioral Process
In this mechanism the animals produce heat by their body activities.
Movement toward Hot Place
Animals move toward hot places during cold season.
Gathering of Animals
The animals come close to each other, so energy is produced.
Use of Warm Cloths
Man used warm clothes for protection and to get heat.


Thermoregulation in Hot Temperature

In hot season the animal produce less heat and also released heat from their body. It take place by two method.
1. Physiological Mechanism
2. Behavioral Mechanism

1. Physiological Mechanism
This process take place by following method.
Less Fats Deposition
In hot season fat is not deposit in below the skin. It loss the body heat.
Increase in Blood Flow toward Skin
In hot season the blood vessels of skin are dilated and vasodialation occur to released body heat.
Softness of Hair
Hair of skin not erect in hot season not prevent the loss of heat energy.
Sweet Gland
Sweet glands become active and water is excreted out through skin. The blood becomes cold and internal temperature is maintained. It is called physiological temperature regulation.

2. Behavioral Mechanism
In this mechanism the animal released heat by their body activities.
Movement toward Cold Places
Animal move from hot to cold places. They remain in shade or moist place to reduce their body heat.
Use of Thin Clothes
Man use thin clothes during summer season.


Role of Brain in Thermoregulation

The body temperature regulation in human is based on complex homeostatic system facilitated by feedback mechanism.

The Control Center
The homeostatic thermostate is present in the hypothalamus, a brain part. It respond to the changes in the temperature above and below 37oC.
Warm Temperature
Incase of increase in temperature above 37oC certain warm temperature sensitive thermoreceptors in skin, hypothalamus and other parts of nervous system send the signals to the system that increase the blood flow to the skin and also cause sweat gland activation and sweat is evaporated for the cooling.
Cold Temperature
In cold temperature, the cold receptor send the impulse to hypothalamus to inhibit heat loss mechanism and activate the heat conservation mechanism.


Fever

When the temperature of the body is increased beyond a set point it is called Fever or Pyrexia.


Cause of Fever

The main cause of fever is the viral or bacterial infection. These germs in blood vessels produce a chemical substance called pyrogen. It increases the body temperature than normal.


Importance

• Fever helps to kill the germs

• It indicates any abnormal condition in the body or infection.

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URDU NOTES

2nd year Urdu Khulasa خلاصےچور

تعارفِ افسانہ

اشفاق احمد صاحب کا یہ افسانہ چور ان کے مجموعے سفرِ مینا سے انتخاب ہے۔ زندگی نام ہے آزمائش کا، امتحان کا۔ زندگی کی اس گاڑی کو چلانے کے لئے اچھی سوچ، اچھی عقل اور اچھی رہنمائی کی ضرورت ہے۔ اگر یہ تینوں چیزیں میسر ہوں تو وہ ایک کامیاب انسان بنتا ہے لیکن ان کی عدم موجودگی کی صورت میں انسان غلط روی اختیار کرکے اپنی دین و دنیا دونوں تباہ کرلیتا ہے اور یہی حقیقیت اشفاق صاحب کے افسانہ کی بنیاد ہے۔


تعارفِ مصنف

اشفاق احمد کے بارے میں لکھتے ہیں:
اشفاق صاحب معاشرے کے سچے اور بے باک ترجمان ہیں۔ ان کا افسانہ ہو یا ڈرامہ وہ اسمیں جذباتِ انسانی کی عمدہ عکاسی کرتے ہیں۔ (احمد ندیم قاسمی)


مرکزی خیال

اشفاق صاحب کا یہ افسانہ معاشرے پرایک دردناک طنز ہے۔ اور اس کا مرکزی خیال کچھ یوں ہے:
کوئی انسان ماں کی گود سے بدکردار اور برا بن کر پیدا نہیں ہوتا بلکہ یہ معاشرے کی ناہمواریاں ہی ایسے کرداروں کو جنم دیتی ہیں اور پروان چڑھاتی ہیں۔


خلاصہ

ایک چور رات کے اندھیرے میں ایک غریب خاندان کے گھر میں چوری کی نیت سے داخل ہوتاہے۔ کمرے میں داخل ہوکر ایک الماری کھولتا ہے جس میں دواوں کی شیشیاں بھری ہوتی ہیں۔ اسی الماری کے خانے میں سے اسے ایک لفافہ ملتا ہے جس میں ایک سو ستر روپے اور ایک خط رکھا ہوتا ہے۔ چور لفافہ منہ میں دبا کر مسروروشادمان نکل جاتا ہے۔ گھر پہنچ کر لفافہ کھولتا ہے اور خط نکال کر پڑھتا ہے۔
خط میں کسی شکیلہ بیگم نے اپنے بھائی کو اپنے بیمار بیٹے کے علاج کے لئے رقم نہ دینے پر شکوہ کیا تھا اور لکھا تھا کہ ادھار وغیرہ لے کر علاج کے لئے رقم مہیا کرلی گئی ہے اور وگ بیٹے کو بغرضِ علاج پنڈی لیجانے والے تھیں۔ یہ حقیقیت جان کر چور کو سویا ہوا ضمیر بیدار ہوگیا۔ رات اس نے سخت اضطراب میں کاٹی اور صبح رقم لوٹانے گھر سے نکلا مگر اسے جائے واردات پر پولیس والے تفتیس کرتے نظر آئے۔ وہ خوفزدہ ہوکر داتا دربار چلا گیا۔ اسکا ضمیر اسے چین نہ لینے دیتا تھا۔ اگلے دن وہ پھر شکیلہ بیگم کے گھر کی طرف گیا۔ اس نے چاہا کہ رجسٹری کا لفافہ پیسوں سمیت اندر اچھا ل دے لیکن ہمت نہ ہوئی۔
چور رات پھر اپنے ضمیر سے لڑتا را اور بالآخر اس کے آگے ہتھیار ڈال دئیے۔ صبح کو نہا دھو کر سیدھا شکیلہ بیگم کے گھر پہنچا کنڈی کھٹکھٹا کر انتظار کرنے لگا کہ جونہی دروازہ کھلے وہ لفافہ اندر پھینک کر روانہ ہوجائے گا۔ دروازہ کھلا لیکن چور کی ہمت نہ ہوئی۔ اس نے یونہی بات بنادی اور وہاں سے چلا آیا۔
اسکے ضمیر نے پھر اس کی لعنت ملامت شروع کردی اور بالآخر اس کی قوت مدافعت جواب دے گئی۔ اس نے ایک ٹرانزسٹر ریڈیو چرا کر بیچ دیا اور قصور وقت گزارنے چلا گیا لیکن یہاں بھی اس کا ضمیر آسودہ نہ ہوسکا۔ ایک ہفتے کے بعد وہ پھر لاہور آیا اور سیدھا شکیلہ بیگم کے گھر پہنچا۔ جب وہ گلی کے موڑ پر پہنچا تو اندر سے بچے کا جنازہ باہر نکل رہاتھا۔ بچے کی حالت بہت خراب تھی۔چور نے آگے بڑھ کر میت کو کندھا دیا۔ بہت سے لوگ باتیں کررہے تھے اور چور کو برا بھلا کہہ رہے تھے جس نے سفرخرچ کی رقم چرا کہ بچے کی جان لے لی تھی۔
چور کے ضمیر نے اس کی گردن پر زور سے دھپا مارا۔ وہ سڑک پر گر گیا۔ لوگوں نے پکڑ کر اسے اٹھایا۔ جنازہ میانی صاحب پہنچ گیا۔ تدفین سے فارغ ہوکر لوگ گھروں کو لوٹ گئے۔ چور نے پھولوں کی ایک ٹوکری خریدی اور سقے کو پیسے دے کر ساری قبر پر چھڑکاو کوایا اور سارے پھول قبر پر ڈال دیے اور بہت دیر وہاں بیٹھا رہا۔ اس نیک کام کی بدولت اس کے ضمیر کا بوجھ بالکل ختم ہوگیا۔

مجسمہ

تعارف

یہ خوبصورت کہانی مجسمہ غلام عباس کے قلم کی وہ تخلیق ہے جس سے ان کی فنی زندگی کا آغاز ہوا۔ غلام عباس جدید اردو افسانے کے منفرد اہلِ قلم ہیں۔ آپ حقیقت و سچائی کا کلیہ مشاہدہ کرکے تجرباتِ زندگانی کو صفحہ قرطاس پر منتقل کرتے ہیں۔ آپ کا طرزِ نگارش سادہ، سلیس اور دل کش ہوتا ہے۔
غلام عباس کے ساتھ افسانے کا ایک عہد ختم ہوگیا۔ وہ اس بزم کے آخری چراغ تھے۔ (شوکت صدیقی)


خلاصہ

اس کہانی کا مرکزی کردار بادشاہ ہے جو اپنی حسین وجمیل ملکہ سے بے پناہ محبت کرتا ہے۔ ایک شوہر کی حیثیت سے وہ ملکہ کو اپنی جذباتی زندگی کی تسکین کا وسیلہ سمجھتا ہے اور گھر میں بے ساختگی کی فضا چاہتا ہے۔ ان تمام احساسات کو سمجھنے کے باوجود ملکہ خدمت و اطاعت کا پیکر بن کر رہتی ہے اور انانیت اور خودداری کے خول سے باہر نہیں آتی۔ ملکہ کا یہ مصنوعی رویہ بادشاہ کو تکلیف پہنچاتا جس کی بدولت وہ ملکہ سے، اپنی سلطنت سے اور پھر خود سے بھی دور ہوتا چلا جاتا ہے۔
عمائدین سلطنت بادشاہ کا غم بانٹنے کے لئے طرح طرح کی کوششیں کرتے ہیں۔ اس کے باوجود بادشاہ کا نفسیاتی خلاء بڑھتا چلا جاتا ہے۔ البتہ اس کے بے کیف دل کو مصوری اور سنگ تراشی میں ہی اپنے احساسات کی تسکین ملتی ہے۔ اور پھر ایک دن جب ایک بوڑھا سنگ تراش بادشاہ کی خدمت میں ایک چھوٹا مگر انتہائی خوبصورت مجسمہ پیش کرتا ہے تو بادشاہ خوشی سے نہال ہوجاتا ہے اور بوڑھے صناع کو بے بہا انعام و کرام سے نوازتا ہے۔
اس احساسات سے پر مجسمے کو بادشاہ اپنی خوابگاہ میں سجالیتا ہے۔ وہ پہروں اسے دیکھتا اور جذبات کی دل فریب دنیا میں کھوجاتا ۔ مجسمے میں بادشاہ کی یہ محویت دیکھ کر ملکہ کے مصنوعی خول میں ہلچل مچ جاتی ہے۔ آہستہ آہستہ اس کے دل میں رشک، حسد بلکہ رقابت کے جذبات پیدا ہونے لگتے ہیں۔ ان جذبات کی تسکین کے لئے ملکہ مختلف طریقے اختیار کرتی تاکہ وہ بادشاہ کی توجہ حاصل کرسکے۔ بادشاہ کو یہ مجسمہ پہلے سے کہیں زیادہ عزیز ہوجاتاہے کیونکہ اسی کی وجہ سے ملکہ کے پتھر دل میں جذبات کی دنیا آباد ہونے لگتی ہے۔
مجسمے میں بادشاہ کی دلچسپی اور ملکہ کی رقابت دن بدن بڑھتی جاتی ہے۔ یہاں تک کہ ملکہ اس مجسمے کو باقائدہ نقصان پہنچانا شروع کردیتی ہے۔ پہلے اس کے منہ پر سیاہی کے دھبے لگاتی ہے اور پھر اسکے اعضاءتوڑ دیتی ہے۔ بادشاہ بظاہر بے خبر تمام لونڈی غلاموں کو سزا بھی دیتا ہے لیکن سمجھ رہا ہوتا ہے کہ ملکہ کے دل پر کیا گزرہی ہے۔
پھر ایک دن جب وہ سوکر اٹھتا ہے تو یہ دیکھ کر اس کے منہ سے چینخ نکل جاتی ہے کہ مجسمے ٹکڑے ٹکڑے ہوچکا ہے۔ لیکن یہی وہ وقت تھا جب بادشاہ کامیاب ہوگیا۔ ملکہ کا انا کا بت بھی پاش پاش ہوگیا اور ملکہ بادشاہ کے قدموں میں تمام تر محسوسات کے ساتھ موجود تھی۔
بادشاہ کی خوابگاہ میں رکھے مجسمے اور ملکہ کی انا کے مجسمے کے ٹوٹتے ہی عورت کو وہ فطری روپ ظہور میں آتا ہے جس کے تحت وہ ہزار انانیت کے باوجود اپنے شوہر کی توجہ کہیں اور برداشت نہیں کرپاتی۔
بقول شاعر
بت شکنی کا مرتبہ یوں تو بلند ہے مگر
اپنے ہی خاص لطف ہے صنعتِ آذری کے بھی

ہمسفر

تعارف

ہم سفر جدید افسانہ نگار انتظار حسین کے قلم کی تخلیق ہے۔ انتظار حسین ایک علامتی افسانہ نگار ہیں۔ جنہوں نے قیام پاکستان کے بعد تہذیبی روایات کو برقرار رکھا اور اردو افسانے کو جدت کی راہ پر گامزن کیا۔ ان کے افسانوں کا موضوع انسان ہے اور انسان کے اندر پائی جانے والی مختلف جہتوں کو اجاگر کرنا ان کا مقصد۔ ان کے یہاں بیانیہ، تمثیلی اور علامتی ہر قسم کے افسانے ملتے ہیں۔
انتظار حسین غالباً اردو کے پہلے افسانہ نگار ہیں جنہوں نے انسانوں کے اخلاقی اور روحانی زوال کی کہانی مختلف زاویوں سے لکھی ہے۔ (پروفیسر سجاد رضوی)


خلاصہ

یہ ایک ایسی کہانی ہے جو انسان میں پائی جانے والی ارادے کی کمزوری اور غیر مستقل مزاجی کی عکاسی کرتی ہے۔ افسانہ نگار نے علامتی طور پر ایک شخص کا سفر بیان کیا ہے جو غلط بس میں سوار ہوجاتا ہے۔ دورانِ سفر اس کے ذہن میں مختلف خیالات کا جوار بھاٹا اٹھتا رہتا ہے اور وہ کسی ایک خیال کو بھی عملی جامہ نہیں پہنا پاتا۔ اسے یہ احساس کچھ دیر کے بعد ہوجاتا ہے کہ وہ غلط بس میں سوار ہے لیکن بس کی رفتار اور رش کی وجہ سے وہ کوئی قدم نہیں اٹھاپاتا۔ بس ماڈل ٹاون کی تھی۔ یہ اسے اس وقت پتہ چلتا ہے جب ایک نوعمر لڑکا بدحواسی کے عالم میں پوچھتا ہے کہ کیا یہ بس ماڈل ٹاون جائے گی؟
پہلے تو وہ اگلے اسٹاپ پر اترنے کا فیصلہ کرلیتا ہے۔ لیکن پھر سوچتا ہے کہ وہاں سے دوسری بس باآسانی نہیں مل سکے گی۔ جیسے جیسے اسٹاپ گزرتے جاتے ہیں اسے احساس ہوتا ہے کہ وہ منزل سے دور ہوتا جارہا ہے۔ بالآخر وہ اپنے آپ کو مجبور پاکر فیصلہ کرتا ہے کہ وہ آخری اسٹاپ تک جائے گا اور پھر کوئی فیصلہ کرے گا۔
ماڈل ٹاون کے ذکر سے اسے اپنا دوست یاد آیا جو پہلے ماڈل ٹاون میں رہائش پذیر تھا اور ان دنوں امریکہ جا چکا تھا۔ پھر اسے امریکہ جانے والے دیگر دوست یاد آئے اور پاکستان میں رہ جانے پر افسوس ہوا۔
کنڈکٹر کے تاخیر سے آنے کی وجہ سے اس کے اندر ضمیر اور نفس کی جنگ شروع ہوجاتی ہے۔ بددیانتی اسے ٹکٹ نہ لینے پر اکساتی ہے لیکن وہ ایسا نہیں کرپاتا۔ کچھ دیر بعد جب وہ کنڈکٹر کو کرایہ دے دیتا ہے تو سوار ہونے کی جگہ نہیں بتاتا۔ چنانچہ جب کنڈکٹر کرایہ کم لیتا ہے تو ایک مرتبہ پھر اس کا ضمیر ملامت کرتا ہے اور آخر کار
بقول مصنف:
اس نے آس پاس کے مسافروں پر چور نظر ڈالی۔ سونے والے ہمسفر کو دیکھ کر اطمینان کا ایک سانس لیا اور پیسے اور ٹکٹ جیب میں رکھ لئے۔
اس کا سفر جاری رہتا ہے۔ مختلف مقامات پر سے سوار ہونے والون کی بے قراری اور اترنے والوں کی بدحواسی، سیٹوں پر بیٹھنے کے لئے مسافرون کی کھنچا تانی اور کسی مسافر کی زبانی کہیں کی کہانی سب سنتا اور دیکھتا رہتا ہے۔
پہلے تو اس نے سوچا تھا کہ وہ غلط بس میں سوار ہوگیا ہے لیکن اب اسے احساس ہوتا ہے کہ صحیح اور غلط تو مسافر ہو تے ہیں۔ بس تو اپنے ہی راستے پر چلتی ہے۔ پھر اس کے ذہن میں یہ خیال ابھرتا ہے کہ اس کا کوئی ہمسفر نہیں ہے کیونکہ دیگر افراد تو اپنی منزل کی جانب گامزن ہیں جبکہ وہ تنہا ہی غلط راستے پر چل رہا ہے۔
منتشر افکار کے اس سفر کے ساتھ ساتھ بس کا سفر بھی جاری رہتا ہے۔ یہاں تک تمام مسافر ایک ایک کرکے اتر جاتے ہیں۔ بس میں صرف وہ یا بھر اس کا مدہوش ہم سفر باقی رہ جاتاہے جو اس کے دکھتے کاندھے پر سررکھے سورہا تھا۔ یہ مختصر سا سفر حیاتِ انسانی سے بھرپور مماثلت رکھتا ہے۔ جس کا ذکر افسانہ نگار نے بھی کیا ہے۔ انسانی زندگی کا سفر بھی مختلف احساسات و جذبات اور فیصلوں کی کشمکش کا نام ہے جس کو طے کرنے کے لئے صحیح وقت پر صحےح قدم کی ضرورت ہے۔
بقول شاعر
زندگی کیا ہے کسی سہمی ہوئی آنکھ سے پوچھ
صرف ایک خوابِ پریشان، جو دیکھا نہ جائے

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ENGLISH NOTES

Summaries from Poem

* Samson Agonistes
* The Solitary Reaper
* Ulysses
* The Man of Life Upright
* Music when Soft Voices Die
* Endymion
* An Essay on Man

Samson Agonistes

Poem Summary Samson Agonistes

Introduction of the Poet

John Milton is regarded as one of the most famous poets of English Literature. His masterpiece Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained, Samson Agonistes earned him fame and honour. His individual style has a touch of sublimity and majesty which is quite appropriate to his noble and powerful ideas.
Introduction of the Poem

Samson Agonistes is an adaptation of the Greek drama form in blank verse, which recounts the tragedy of Samson in his blindness beset by enemies. This hero performed the decisive role in crushing the philistines who were the deadly enemies of his race. Samson, too got killed in that disaster but his heroic act saved his tribesman from the deadly enemy. By virtue of his glorious deed, his named earned eternity. It is rightly said:

“Those who die for their nation live for ever.”
Summary

Once the Philistines arranged a grand feast in a temple. The huge gathering included gentry from all parts of the country. A prisoner, Samson, was brought to display his immense strength and stamina through different stunts. Though he was blind, but performed very well and the leaders enjoyed it. After performing for some time, he feel exhausted and wished to be taken between the pillars for rest. He placed his arms on the pillars and stood with his head inclined as if he was lost in some profound thoughts or was busy in prayer. The foundation of great temple rested onto these two pillars. Ultimately he addressed the gathering and informed them that his final performance would be according to his own will and it would leave them amazed and fascinated.

After the speech, Samson started to exert all his force and energy onto these massy pillars. The way he was jerking the pillars, it seemed as if the forces of nature had also come to his assistance and were enclosed in his body. Eventually, he was able to remove the pillars from their place and the whole roof collapsed with a loud rumble and explosion. All the people assemble there were buried alive under the pillars. Samson was unable to save himself from the claws of death and was also buried with them, but remained alive among the hearts of his people. In this way, he set an example of great sacrifice by giving up his life but eliminating his rivals.

The Solitary Reaper

 Williams Words Worth is a poet who has developed his own immensely valuable theories concerning poetry. This is the reason why he possesses a unique and artificial style. His work shows his life long love for natural beauty, which gives hi the title Poet of Nature.
About the Poem

The poem entitled The Solitary Reaper relates to an incident, which deeply inspired the poet when he was walking alone through the barren hills of Scotland. He was fascinated by the sweet voice of a girl, who was singing a song in her native language.
Summary

The poet was on one of his long walks along the barren hills of Scotland when he saw a young girl. She was all alone in the field, harvesting the crops and singing a song in a pensive tone. The poet was profoundly fascinated by the bewitching melody and her voice left an everlasting and indelible impression on the mind of the poet. This impression motivated the poet to write a poem in appreciation of the melodious voice of the girl.

The poet says that the voice of the girl scattered all over the deep valley. He says that the musical notes of the young singer are symmetrical to the thrilling songs of the Nightingale and the Cuckoo. They were far sweeter than the humming of birds and impressed the heart deeply. The sweet melody appeals to the tired travelers of the Arabian Desert, who need relaxation after a long and monotonous journey. The voice leaves a deeper impact than the song sung by the Cuckoo birds. It gives more than just breaking the serenity and tranquility of the lonely seas.

The poet says that although he failed to understand the exact wordings of the song, as the girl was singing in her native language, he could feel the sorrow and grief in her voice. It was a song of lamentation describing some suffering of every day life.

In the end, the poet realizes that although he would never again get the opportunity to listen to that melodious voice, it would remain fresh in his mind forever. The beautiful gift of nature the girl had, became a source of ceaseless joy for the poet.

“Great music is that which penetrates the ear with facility and leaves the memory with difficulty. Magical music never leaves the memory.”Ulysses

Lord Alfred Tennyson occupies a very important and prominent position in the domain of English Literature. He is the representative poet of Victorian era. He is a prolific poet and has composed a number of poems. Tennyson’s poetry is rich in imagery as that of keats but it lacks the romantic fine of Words Worth and Coleridge.
Introduction of the Poem

Ulysses is a long, magnificent, symbolical and moral boosting poem. The poem is written in the dramatic monologues of the powerful blank verse and tells the story of the most prudent and bravest of the Greek heroes, Ulysses of Homer’s Odyssey. He is the symbol of adventurous spirit, indomitable courage, inexhaustible zeal; unflinching faith; unshakable determination and unquenchable thirst for knowledge. Ulysses wants to set out on a journey of discovery because he believes that it is not too late to find a New World.
Summary

Ulysses was a Greek hero and the King of Ithaca. He had spent most of his life in voyages and was always filled with the spirit of ventures and courage. His life was based on the principle of struggle and courage.

In this speech, Ulysses pays high tribute to his mariners who laboured and worked with him. He reminded them of the past endeavors and motivated them to get prepared for another voyage. Ulysses believed that struggle should continue as long as they lived. They had to prove their eagerness, enthusiasm and the ability to fight even with deities Ulysses invited his sailors to set off for another voyage in the hope of discovering new land in the far west. He was conscious of the dangers and hazards involved in such an exploitation but he was prepared to meet all the challenges.

Ulysses admitted that with the passage of time, the major part of their lives and much of their energies have been used up and they had grown weaker. But their determination was as strong as ever and they do not find them selves lacking in strength and vitality. They find themselves still a force to reckon with. They are always bent upon making ceaseless efforts to discover new lands, and under no circumstances, giving up their struggle until ultimate success is achieved.
Moral

“Struggle is the father of all things … it is not by the principles of humanity that man lives or is able to preserve himself above the animal world, but solely by means of the most brutal struggle.”

- Adolf Hitler

The Man of Life Upright

Thomas Campion was a prominent scholar, poet and musician of his time. Man of Life Upright is simple in expression but it contains depth of thought and feeling. The poem present the concept of an ideal personality, leading a highly disciplined and controlled life. He is master of himself.
Summary

The pure and innocent heart of an upright man is free from evil ideas and intentions. He passes his life in simple happiness. He has perfect control over his wishes and emotions. As a result, worldly loss and problems fail to disturb him.

He is confident and brave. He does not count on power or material resources. In a battle he depends upon God and seeks help from him. He does not have strong forts, weapons of war or secret cellars for his safety.

This man faces the natural calamities such as stormy winds, heavy rains and tempest calmly and courageously. His faith in God remains firm and unshaken.

“Faith is the force of Life.”

- Tolstoy

The poet says that this main shows complete indifference to the happy and unhappy events of Life. He is aware of that all wordly things and events are temporary and worthless. He seeks knowledge from the heavenly books and study of the objects of Nature adds to his wisdom and refines his intellect.

Compion says that the main of upright life considers the world a place for brief stay. It no more than an inn, without any glamour or charm. He believes that his good deeds are his only assets and earning. When called upon by God, he will have to embark on the journey to the next and eternal world.

“It matters not how long we live, but how we live.”

- Bailey

Music when Soft Voices Die

 The poem entitled Music when Soft Voices Die is a short one, yet the theme that it contains is very deep and profound. In this poem, we are told that we cannot forget our loved ones even though they are no longer with us.
Summary

The poem tells us that even after we stop listening to good music, this soft music lingers on in our memories for a long time to come. Another example that he gives is of flowers like violets, telling us that even after flowers die away, their sweet scent lingers with us for a long time to come.

Giving yet another example, the poet tells us that even after a rose withers away its petals, are scattered on the bed of loved ones in order to make the room sweet scented. In the last, he empresses the central idea asserting that everything and every one that we love can never be forgotten by us even though they are not with us any longer. Therefore, the poet declares that even though his beloved is no longer with him, yet her loving though shall live in his memory and even though the poet will not be able to actively show the love for her, yet in a silent, quite manner, he shall continue to love her as long as he lives.
Conclusion

The conclusion then to draw from these lines is that the poet feels very rightly so that our loved ones are so precious and dear to us that no matter what happens we cannot forget them.

Endymion

John Keats is one of the finest English poets. In spite of living only for twenty-six years, he contributed a lot to English Poetry. His poems are spirited and lively. His personal life was a tale of sorrow and bereavement, but his keen observant eye made him an admirer of nature, which is fully reflected in his poems.
Introduction of the Poem

Endymion is poem of great beauty. In this poem John Keats has expressed his conception of beauty and has given a unique definition of beauty. According to Classical Mythology Endymion was a beautiful youth with whom moon Goddess fell in love and on whom she induced a perpetual sleep in order to kiss him without his knowledge.
Summary

Endymion is a poem of great beauty. In this poem John Keats has expressed his conception of beauty and has given a unique definition of beauty. According to Classical Mythology Endymion was a beautiful youth with whom the moon goddess fell in love and on whom she induced a perpetual sleep in order to kiss him without his knowledge.

In this poem the poet says that beauty is a constant source of joy. Its loveliness increases with the passage of time. Beauty is immortal. It appears in many shapes. The world is full of misery but the beautiful objects of nature such as the sun, the moon, old and new trees and flowers give us great pleasure and we forget our griefs.

“Beauty moves away the pall from our dark spirits.”

We also see glimpses of beauty of the grand places, which we imagine for the mighty dead. Similarly we derive great pleasure from lovely tales which we have read or heard. There are masterpieces of literature and Art which serve as source of eternal joy. Heroic deeds and lives of great men of the past too, are among these objects of beauty. It is the heights of keat’s imagination All these visions of beauty are like a fountain, which gives an immortal drink to our thirsty souls.

“Imagination is the eye of the soul.”

- Joubert
Conclusion

Beauty is truth, turth beauty that is all

Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know

- John Keats

John Keats is an ardent lover of beauty. This is his fundamental belief and it operates in all his poems. He is really in search of Truth. He wants to enjoy beauty to the best possible degree. Endymion is a magnificent poem, which reflects profound love of the poet for beauty as it is a constant source of spiritual joy. Therefore one must not forget:

"A thing of beauty is a joy for ever"

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